Technical Notes about PCRE
--------------------------

Many years ago I implemented some regular expression functions to an algorithm
suggested by Martin Richards. These were not Unix-like in form, and were quite
restricted in what they could do by comparison with Perl. The interesting part
about the algorithm was that the amount of space required to hold the compiled
form of an expression was known in advance. The code to apply an expression did
not operate by backtracking, as the Henry Spencer and Perl code does, but
instead checked all possibilities simultaneously by keeping a list of current
states and checking all of them as it advanced through the subject string. (In
the terminology of Jeffrey Friedl's book, it was a "DFA algorithm".) When the
pattern was all used up, all remaining states were possible matches, and the
one matching the longest subset of the subject string was chosen. This did not
necessarily maximize the individual wild portions of the pattern, as is
expected in Unix and Perl-style regular expressions.

By contrast, the code originally written by Henry Spencer and subsequently
heavily modified for Perl actually compiles the expression twice: once in a
dummy mode in order to find out how much store will be needed, and then for
real. The execution function operates by backtracking and maximizing (or,
optionally, minimizing in Perl) the amount of the subject that matches
individual wild portions of the pattern. This is an "NFA algorithm" in Friedl's
terminology.

For the set of functions that forms PCRE (which are unrelated to those
mentioned above), I tried at first to invent an algorithm that used an amount
of store bounded by a multiple of the number of characters in the pattern, to
save on compiling time. However, because of the greater complexity in Perl
regular expressions, I couldn't do this. In any case, a first pass through the
pattern is needed, in order to find internal flag settings like (?i) at top
level. So PCRE works by running a very degenerate first pass to calculate a
maximum store size, and then a second pass to do the real compile - which may
use a bit less than the predicted amount of store. The idea is that this is
going to turn out faster because the first pass is degenerate and the second
pass can just store stuff straight into the vector. It does make the compiling
functions bigger, of course, but they have got quite big anyway to handle all
the Perl stuff.

The compiled form of a pattern is a vector of bytes, containing items of
variable length. The first byte in an item is an opcode, and the length of the
item is either implicit in the opcode or contained in the data bytes which
follow it. A list of all the opcodes follows:

Opcodes with no following data
------------------------------

These items are all just one byte long

  OP_END                 end of pattern
  OP_ANY                 match any character
  OP_SOD                 match start of data: \A
  OP_CIRC                ^ (start of data, or after \n in multiline)
  OP_NOT_WORD_BOUNDARY   \W
  OP_WORD_BOUNDARY       \w
  OP_NOT_DIGIT           \D
  OP_DIGIT               \d
  OP_NOT_WHITESPACE      \S
  OP_WHITESPACE          \s
  OP_NOT_WORDCHAR        \W
  OP_WORDCHAR            \w
  OP_EODN                match end of data or \n at end: \Z
  OP_EOD                 match end of data: \z
  OP_DOLL                $ (end of data, or before \n in multiline)
  OP_RECURSE             match the pattern recursively


Repeating single characters
---------------------------

The common repeats (*, +, ?) when applied to a single character appear as
two-byte items using the following opcodes:

  OP_STAR
  OP_MINSTAR
  OP_PLUS
  OP_MINPLUS
  OP_QUERY
  OP_MINQUERY

Those with "MIN" in their name are the minimizing versions. Each is followed by
the character that is to be repeated. Other repeats make use of

  OP_UPTO
  OP_MINUPTO
  OP_EXACT

which are followed by a two-byte count (most significant first) and the
repeated character. OP_UPTO matches from 0 to the given number. A repeat with a
non-zero minimum and a fixed maximum is coded as an OP_EXACT followed by an
OP_UPTO (or OP_MINUPTO).


Repeating character types
-------------------------

Repeats of things like \d are done exactly as for single characters, except
that instead of a character, the opcode for the type is stored in the data
byte. The opcodes are:

  OP_TYPESTAR
  OP_TYPEMINSTAR
  OP_TYPEPLUS
  OP_TYPEMINPLUS
  OP_TYPEQUERY
  OP_TYPEMINQUERY
  OP_TYPEUPTO
  OP_TYPEMINUPTO
  OP_TYPEEXACT


Matching a character string
---------------------------

The OP_CHARS opcode is followed by a one-byte count and then that number of
characters. If there are more than 255 characters in sequence, successive
instances of OP_CHARS are used.


Character classes
-----------------

OP_CLASS is used for a character class, provided there are at least two
characters in the class. If there is only one character, OP_CHARS is used for a
positive class, and OP_NOT for a negative one (that is, for something like
[^a]). Another set of repeating opcodes (OP_NOTSTAR etc.) are used for a
repeated, negated, single-character class. The normal ones (OP_STAR etc.) are
used for a repeated positive single-character class.

OP_CLASS is followed by a 32-byte bit map containing a 1 bit for every
character that is acceptable. The bits are counted from the least significant
end of each byte.


Back references
---------------

OP_REF is followed by a single byte containing the reference number.


Repeating character classes and back references
-----------------------------------------------

Single-character classes are handled specially (see above). This applies to
OP_CLASS and OP_REF. In both cases, the repeat information follows the base
item. The matching code looks at the following opcode to see if it is one of

  OP_CRSTAR
  OP_CRMINSTAR
  OP_CRPLUS
  OP_CRMINPLUS
  OP_CRQUERY
  OP_CRMINQUERY
  OP_CRRANGE
  OP_CRMINRANGE

All but the last two are just single-byte items. The others are followed by
four bytes of data, comprising the minimum and maximum repeat counts.


Brackets and alternation
------------------------

A pair of non-capturing (round) brackets is wrapped round each expression at
compile time, so alternation always happens in the context of brackets.
Non-capturing brackets use the opcode OP_BRA, while capturing brackets use
OP_BRA+1, OP_BRA+2, etc. [Note for North Americans: "bracket" to some English
speakers, including myself, can be round, square, curly, or pointy. Hence this
usage.]

A bracket opcode is followed by two bytes which give the offset to the next
alternative OP_ALT or, if there aren't any branches, to the matching KET
opcode. Each OP_ALT is followed by two bytes giving the offset to the next one,
or to the KET opcode.

OP_KET is used for subpatterns that do not repeat indefinitely, while
OP_KETRMIN and OP_KETRMAX are used for indefinite repetitions, minimally or
maximally respectively. All three are followed by two bytes giving (as a
positive number) the offset back to the matching BRA opcode.

If a subpattern is quantified such that it is permitted to match zero times, it
is preceded by one of OP_BRAZERO or OP_BRAMINZERO. These are single-byte
opcodes which tell the matcher that skipping this subpattern entirely is a
valid branch.

A subpattern with an indefinite maximum repetition is replicated in the
compiled data its minimum number of times (or once with a BRAZERO if the
minimum is zero), with the final copy terminating with a KETRMIN or KETRMAX as
appropriate.

A subpattern with a bounded maximum repetition is replicated in a nested
fashion up to the maximum number of times, with BRAZERO or BRAMINZERO before
each replication after the minimum, so that, for example, (abc){2,5} is
compiled as (abc)(abc)((abc)((abc)(abc)?)?)?. The 200-bracket limit does not
apply to these internally generated brackets.


Assertions
----------

Forward assertions are just like other subpatterns, but starting with one of
the opcodes OP_ASSERT or OP_ASSERT_NOT. Backward assertions use the opcodes
OP_ASSERTBACK and OP_ASSERTBACK_NOT, and the first opcode inside the assertion
is OP_REVERSE, followed by a two byte count of the number of characters to move
back the pointer in the subject string. When operating in UTF-8 mode, the count
is a character count rather than a byte count. A separate count is present in
each alternative of a lookbehind assertion, allowing them to have different
fixed lengths.


Once-only subpatterns
---------------------

These are also just like other subpatterns, but they start with the opcode
OP_ONCE.


Conditional subpatterns
-----------------------

These are like other subpatterns, but they start with the opcode OP_COND. If
the condition is a back reference, this is stored at the start of the
subpattern using the opcode OP_CREF followed by one byte containing the
reference number. Otherwise, a conditional subpattern will always start with
one of the assertions.


Changing options
----------------

If any of the /i, /m, or /s options are changed within a parenthesized group,
an OP_OPT opcode is compiled, followed by one byte containing the new settings
of these flags. If there are several alternatives in a group, there is an
occurrence of OP_OPT at the start of all those following the first options
change, to set appropriate options for the start of the alternative.
Immediately after the end of the group there is another such item to reset the
flags to their previous values. Other changes of flag within the pattern can be
handled entirely at compile time, and so do not cause anything to be put into
the compiled data.


Philip Hazel
August 2000
